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The Historical Evolution
of Civilisations and
Archaeology of Empires
Benjamin Toro
THE PAX ASSYRIACA
The Historical Evolution of Civilisations
and Archaeology of Empires
Benjamin Toro
Archaeopress Archaeology
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Summertown Pavilion
18-24 Middle Way
Summertown
Oxford OX2 7LG
www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978-1-78969-062-0
ISBN 978-1-78969-063-7 (e-Pdf)
© Benjamin Toro and Archaeopress 2022
Cover: Detail of a gypsum wall panel relief from Nineveh showing Assyrian soldiers and Kushite prisoners.
Cover title design by Siegfried Obrist.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.
This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
Contents
Introduction
.................................................................................................................................................................................1
The concept of civilisation ....................................................................................................................................................1
The historical evolution of civilisations .............................................................................................................................2
a) The origin of civilisations ...........................................................................................................................................3
b) The development of civilisations ..............................................................................................................................4
c) The decline and collapse of civilisations ..................................................................................................................7
First aim of this study: the Central Civilisation and the Mesopotamian / Egyptian merger .....................................8
Second aim of this study: the methodological approach to the archaeological knowledge of the Ancient
Near East ..........................................................................................................................................................................14
Third aim of this study: an approach to World Systems Theory and archaeology ....................................................15
Chapter 1
The Historical Evolution of the Ancient Near East and the Rise of the Assyrian Phenomenon...........................19
The Ancient Near East as geopolitical entity ...................................................................................................................19
The Land of Mesopotamia as the Cradle of Civilisation .................................................................................................23
a) Southern Mesopotamia and the first socio-economic development .................................................................27
b) Northern Mesopotamia and the Origin of Kingship ............................................................................................38
The Mesopotamian symbiosis ............................................................................................................................................42
The Assyrian phenomenon .................................................................................................................................................47
The Ancient Near East and the ‘catastrophe’ at the end of the Bronze Age ...............................................................56
a) Old theories and new approaches............................................................................................................................56
b) The Survival of the Assyrian World and the beginning of a New Era................................................................64
Chapter 2
The Neo-Assyrian Empire and the
Pax Assyriaca
...............................................................................................................68
The archaeology of empires: theories, approaches and problems ...............................................................................68
The meaning of ‘empire’ and its principal dimensions ..................................................................................................71
The Neo-Assyrian expansion and the peripheral polities under its domination.......................................................74
a) The royal ideology of the Neo-Assyrian monarchy ..............................................................................................76
b) The Neo-Assyrian military reform during the Iron Age ......................................................................................80
The Neo-Assyrian hierarchy of its imperial core. ...........................................................................................................85
a) The Land of Assyria (Aššur mat) ..............................................................................................................................87
b) The Largest Assyria....................................................................................................................................................88
The Neo-Assyrian order and its global context .............................................................................................................101
a) Infrastructure of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ........................................................................................................102
b) The superstructure of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ................................................................................................111
Chapter 3
Ancient Egypt and the
Pax Assyriaca
..................................................................................................................................116
General introduction to the Egyptian civilisation ........................................................................................................116
a) Ancient Egypt and its geographical and human characteristics ......................................................................116
b) Ancient Egypt and its historical evolution ......................................................................................................117
c) Ancient Egypt during the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ............................................................................120
Ancient Egypt, the Neo-Assyrian expansion and its peripheral polities of domination .......................................128
a) The royal ideology of the Egyptian monarchy and its confrontation with the Neo-Assyrian model ........128
b) The Egyptian legacy during the Third Intermediate Period and the Neo-Assyrian Empire .......................130
c) Egyptian militarism and the confrontation with Neo-Assyrian power ...........................................................134
Ancient Egypt and the Neo-Assyrian imperial core......................................................................................................144
a) The Egyptian order and its personal global context .........................................................................................145
b) Egypt and the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the Syro-Palestine region ..................................................................147
c) The Neo-Assyrian Empire and the administration of Egypt .............................................................................159
Ancient Egypt and the Neo-Assyrian order in its global context ..............................................................................163
a) Neo-Assyrian infrastructure in Egypt ................................................................................................................163
b) Neo-Assyrian superstructure in Egypt ...............................................................................................................173
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